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For nearly 30 years, it was exhibited only on rare occasions at the discretion of the Secretary of State. Funds were appropriated to preserve the documents in a public exhibit that opened in For many years, officials at the National Archives believed that they, rather than the Library of Congress, should have custody of the Declaration and the Constitution. The transfer finally took place in , and the documents, along with the Bill of Rights , are now on permanent display at the National Archives in the "Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom ".
Although encased in helium , by the early s the documents were threatened by further deterioration. In , using the latest in preservation technology, conservators treated the documents and transferred them to encasements made of titanium and aluminum , filled with inert argon gas. How it came to be in England is not yet known, but the finders believe that the randomness of the signatures points to an origin with signatory James Wilson , who had argued strongly that the Declaration was made not by the States but by the whole people.
The finders identify the Sussex Declaration as a transcription of the Matlack Declaration, probably made between and and likely in New York City or possibly Philadelphia.
They propose that the Sussex Declaration "descended from the Matlack Declaration, and it or a copy served, before disappearing from view, as a source text for both the Tyler engraving and the Bridgham engraving". From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Information Bulletin. Library of Congress. Retrieved 9 July The Washington Post. Retrieved 3 July Boyd Papers of Jefferson , —28 casts doubt on Becker's belief that the change was made by Franklin. October The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography.
Harvard University. Harvard Library bulletin. Cambridge, Mass. The Early America Review, Vol. VII No. Huffington Post. Associated Press. Retrieved 1 July The Daily Telegraph. The New York Times. Charters of Freedom. National Archives and Records Administration.
National Park Service. Retrieved 12 July The Georgetown Voice. Retrieved 22 September The Times of India. Archived from the original on 5 November Retrieved 6 July Retrieved 31 March STV News. Retrieved 2 July Functional programming has historically been less popular than imperative programming, but many functional languages are seeing use today in industry and education, including Common Lisp , Scheme , [3] [4] [5] [6] Clojure , Wolfram Language , [7] [8] Racket , [9] Erlang , [10] [11] [12] Elixir , [13] OCaml , [14] [15] Haskell , [16] [17] and F.
The lambda calculus , developed in the s by Alonzo Church , is a formal system of computation built from function application. In Alan Turing proved that the lambda calculus and Turing machines are equivalent models of computation, [36] showing that the lambda calculus is Turing complete.
Lambda calculus forms the basis of all functional programming languages. Church later developed a weaker system, the simply-typed lambda calculus , which extended the lambda calculus by assigning a type to all terms. Later dialects, such as Scheme and Clojure , and offshoots such as Dylan and Julia , sought to simplify and rationalise Lisp around a cleanly functional core, while Common Lisp was designed to preserve and update the paradigmatic features of the numerous older dialects it replaced.
Information Processing Language IPL , , is sometimes cited as the first computer-based functional programming language. It does have a notion of generator , which amounts to a function that accepts a function as an argument, and, since it is an assembly-level language, code can be data, so IPL can be regarded as having higher-order functions.
However, it relies heavily on the mutating list structure and similar imperative features. Kenneth E. In the early s, Iverson and Roger Hui created J. In the mids, Arthur Whitney , who had previously worked with Iverson, created K , which is used commercially in financial industries along with its descendant Q.
A Functional Style and its Algebra of Programs". In the s, Guy L. Scheme was the first dialect of lisp to use lexical scoping and to require tail-call optimization , features that encourage functional programming. This led to new approaches to interactive theorem proving and has influenced the development of subsequent functional programming languages.
The lazy functional language, Miranda , developed by David Turner, initially appeared in and had a strong influence on Haskell. With Miranda being proprietary, Haskell began with a consensus in to form an open standard for functional programming research; implementation releases have been ongoing since More recently it has found use in niches such as parametric CAD in the OpenSCAD language built on the CGAL framework, although its restriction on reassigning values all values are treated as constants has led to confusion among users who are unfamiliar with functional programming as a concept.
Functional programming continues to be used in commercial settings. A number of concepts and paradigms are specific to functional programming, and generally foreign to imperative programming including object-oriented programming. However, programming languages often cater to several programming paradigms, so programmers using "mostly imperative" languages may have utilized some of these concepts.
Higher-order functions are functions that can either take other functions as arguments or return them as results. Higher-order functions are closely related to first-class functions in that higher-order functions and first-class functions both allow functions as arguments and results of other functions.
The distinction between the two is subtle: "higher-order" describes a mathematical concept of functions that operate on other functions, while "first-class" is a computer science term for programming language entities that have no restriction on their use thus first-class functions can appear anywhere in the program that other first-class entities like numbers can, including as arguments to other functions and as their return values.
Higher-order functions enable partial application or currying , a technique that applies a function to its arguments one at a time, with each application returning a new function that accepts the next argument. This lets a programmer succinctly express, for example, the successor function as the addition operator partially applied to the natural number one. This means that pure functions have several useful properties, many of which can be used to optimize the code:.
While most compilers for imperative programming languages detect pure functions and perform common-subexpression elimination for pure function calls, they cannot always do this for pre-compiled libraries, which generally do not expose this information, thus preventing optimizations that involve those external functions.
Some compilers, such as gcc , add extra keywords for a programmer to explicitly mark external functions as pure, to enable such optimizations. Fortran 95 also lets functions be designated pure. Iteration looping in functional languages is usually accomplished via recursion. Recursive functions invoke themselves, letting an operation be repeated until it reaches the base case. In general, recursion requires maintaining a stack , which consumes space in a linear amount to the depth of recursion.
This could make recursion prohibitively expensive to use instead of imperative loops. However, a special form of recursion known as tail recursion can be recognized and optimized by a compiler into the same code used to implement iteration in imperative languages. Tail recursion optimization can be implemented by transforming the program into continuation passing style during compiling, among other approaches.
The Scheme language standard requires implementations to support proper tail recursion, meaning they must allow an unbounded number of active tail calls. While proper tail recursion is usually implemented by turning code into imperative loops, implementations might implement it in other ways.
However, when this happens, its garbage collector will claim space back, [56] allowing an unbounded number of active tail calls even though it does not turn tail recursion into a loop. Common patterns of recursion can be abstracted away using higher-order functions, with catamorphisms and anamorphisms or "folds" and "unfolds" being the most obvious examples. Such recursion schemes play a role analogous to built-in control structures such as loops in imperative languages.
Most general purpose functional programming languages allow unrestricted recursion and are Turing complete , which makes the halting problem undecidable , can cause unsoundness of equational reasoning , and generally requires the introduction of inconsistency into the logic expressed by the language's type system.
Some special purpose languages such as Coq allow only well-founded recursion and are strongly normalizing nonterminating computations can be expressed only with infinite streams of values called codata.
As a consequence, these languages fail to be Turing complete and expressing certain functions in them is impossible, but they can still express a wide class of interesting computations while avoiding the problems introduced by unrestricted recursion.
Functional programming limited to well-founded recursion with a few other constraints is called total functional programming. Functional languages can be categorized by whether they use strict eager or non-strict lazy evaluation, concepts that refer to how function arguments are processed when an expression is being evaluated.
The technical difference is in the denotational semantics of expressions containing failing or divergent computations. She hosted a Paris salon , where the leading figures of modernism in literature and art, such as Pablo Picasso , Ernest Hemingway , F. Toklas , written in the voice of Alice B. Toklas , her life partner. Her books include Q. Her activities during World War II have been the subject of analysis and commentary. German and English were spoken in their home.
When Stein was three years old, she and her family moved to Vienna , and then Paris. Accompanied by governesses and tutors, the Steins endeavored to imbue their children with the cultured sensibilities of European history and life. She would often go on excursions with her brother, Leo, with whom she developed a close relationship. Stein found formal schooling in Oakland unstimulating, but she often read: Shakespeare , Wordsworth , Scott , Burns , Smollett , Fielding , and more.
When Stein was 14 years old, her mother died. Three years later, her father died as well. Stein's eldest brother, Michael Stein, age 26, [12] then took over the family business holdings, moved his four siblings to San Francisco, [16] where he now was a director of the Market Street Cable Railway Company , and in arranged for Gertrude and another sister, Bertha, to live with their mother's family in Baltimore. The Cones shared an appreciation for art and conversation about it and modeled a domestic division of labor that Stein would replicate in her relationship with Alice B.
Toklas [19]. Stein attended Radcliffe College , [13] then an annex of Harvard University , from to and was a student of psychologist William James. These experiments yielded examples of writing that appeared to represent " stream of consciousness ", a psychological theory often attributed to James and the style of modernist authors Virginia Woolf and James Joyce. In , behavioral psychologist B. Skinner interpreted Stein's difficult poem Tender Buttons as an example of normal motor automatism.
Writing for the normal person is too complicated an activity to be indulged in automatically. At Radcliffe, she began a lifelong friendship with Mabel Foote Weeks, whose correspondence traces much of the progression of Stein's life.
Bachelor of Arts magna cum laude from Radcliffe in William James, who had become a committed mentor to Stein at Radcliffe, recognizing her intellectual potential, and declaring her his "most brilliant woman student", encouraged Stein to enroll in medical school. Although Stein professed no interest in either the theory or practice of medicine, she enrolled at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine in In her fourth year, Stein failed an important course, lost interest, and left.
Stein's tenure at Johns Hopkins was marked by challenges and stress. Men dominated the medical field, and the inclusion of women in the profession was not unreservedly or unanimously welcomed. Writing of this period in her life in Things As They Are , Stein often revealed herself as a depressed young woman dealing with a paternalistic culture, struggling to find her own identity, which she realized could not conform to the conventional female role.
Her uncorseted physical appearance and eccentric mode of dress aroused comment and she was described as "Big and floppy and sandaled and not caring a damn. Asked to give a lecture to a group of Baltimore women in , Stein gave a controversial speech titled "The Value of College Education for Women", undoubtedly designed to provoke the largely middle-class audience. In the lecture Stein maintained:. Sometime in or , she became infatuated with Mary Bookstaver who was involved in a relationship with a medical student, Mabel Haynes.
Witnessing the relationship between the two women served for Stein as her "erotic awakening". The unhappy love triangle demoralized Stein, arguably contributing to her decision to abandon her medical studies. The following year the two relocated to Paris, where Leo hoped to pursue an art career. From until , when they dissolved their common household, Gertrude and her brother Leo shared living quarters near the Luxembourg Gardens on the Left Bank of Paris in a two-story apartment with the adjacent studio located on the interior courtyard at 27 rue de Fleurus , 6th arrondissement.
Here they accumulated the works of art that formed a collection that became renowned for its prescience and historical importance. The gallery space was furnished with imposing Renaissance -era furniture from Florence , Italy.
The paintings lined the walls in tiers trailing many feet to the ceiling. Initially illuminated by gaslight, the artwork was later lit by electric light shortly prior to World War I. Leo Stein cultivated important art world connections, enabling the Stein holdings to grow over time. The joint collection of Gertrude and Leo Stein began in late when Michael Stein announced that their trust account had accumulated a balance of 8, francs. The art collection increased and the walls at Rue de Fleurus were rearranged continually to make way for new acquisitions.
Henry McBride art critic for the New York Sun did much for Stein's reputation in the United States, publicizing her art acquisitions and her importance as a cultural figure. Of the art collection at 27 Rue de Fleurus, McBride commented: "[I]n proportion to its size and quality She recognized them a long way off.
While numerous artists visited the Stein salon, many of these artists were not represented among the paintings on the walls at 27 Rue de Fleurus. The division of the Steins' art collection was described in a letter by Leo:. The Picasso landscape is not important in any such sense. We are, as it seems to me on the whole, both so well off now that we needn't repine.
I am willing to leave you the Picasso oeuvre, as you left me the Renoir, and you can have everything except that. I want to keep the few drawings that I have. I have been anxious above all things that each should have in reason all that he wanted, and just as I was glad that Renoir was sufficiently indifferent to you so that you were ready to give them up, so I am glad that Pablo is sufficiently indifferent to me that I am willing to let you have all you want of it. Leo departed with sixteen Renoirs and, relinquishing the Picassos and most of Matisse to his sister, took only a portrait sketch Picasso had done of him.
Stein did not see Leo Stein again until after World War I , and then through only a brief greeting on the street in Paris. After this accidental encounter, they never saw or spoke to each other again. After Stein's and Leo's households separated in , she continued to collect examples of Picasso's art, which had turned to Cubism , a style Leo did not appreciate.
At her death, Gertrude's remaining collection emphasized the artwork of Picasso and Juan Gris , most of her other pictures having been sold. Gertrude Stein's personality has dominated the provenance of the Stein art legacy.
It was, however, her brother Leo who was the astute art appraiser. Alfred Barr Jr. In , Stein asserted: "Painting now after its great period has come back to be a minor art. In , in a preface for the first exhibition of Spanish painter Francisco Riba Rovira who painted a portrait of her , Stein wrote:. When he could not make a thing, he hijacked it and left it. He insisted on showing his incapacity: he spread his lack of success: showing what he could not do, became an obsession for him.
People influenced by him were also obsessed with the things which they could not reach and they began the system of camouflage. The only one who wanted to insist on this problem was Juan Gris. The gatherings in the Stein home "brought together confluences of talent and thinking that would help define modernism in literature and art". It was Stein's partner Alice who became the de facto hostess for the wives and girlfriends of the artists in attendance, who met in a separate room.
When guests showed up, Alice was called upon to entertain their wives. Hemingway frequented Stein's salon, but the two had an uneven relationship. They began as close friends, with Hemingway admiring Stein as a mentor, but they later grew apart, especially after Stein called Hemingway "yellow" in The Autobiography of Alice B. During the summer of , Stein advised the young composer and writer Paul Bowles to go to Tangier , where she and Alice had vacationed. Stein's writing can be placed in three categories: "hermetic" works best illustrated by The Making of Americans : The Hersland Family ; popularized writing such as The Autobiography of Alice B.
Toklas ; and speech writing and more accessible autobiographical writing of later years, of which Brewsie and Willie is a good example. Her works include novels, plays, stories, libretti , and poems written in a highly idiosyncratic, playful, repetitive, and humorous style. Typical quotes are: " Rose is a rose is a rose is a rose "; "Out of kindness comes redness and out of rudeness comes rapid same question, out of an eye comes research, out of selection comes painful cattle"; [56] about her childhood home in Oakland , "There is no there there"; and "The change of color is likely and a difference a very little difference is prepared.
Sugar is not a vegetable. These stream-of-consciousness experiments, rhythmical essays or "portraits", were designed to evoke "the excitingness of pure being" and can be seen as literature's answer to visual art styles and forms such as Cubism , plasticity, and collage. Many of the experimental works such as Tender Buttons have since been interpreted by critics as a feminist reworking of patriarchal language.
These works were well received by avant-garde critics but did not initially achieve mainstream success. Despite Stein's work on " automatic writing " with William James , she did not see her work as automatic, but as an 'excess of consciousness'.
Particularly, he influenced her idea of equality, distinguished from universality: "the whole field of the canvas is important". Stein explained: "[T]he important thing Her use of repetition is ascribed to her search for descriptions of the "bottom nature" of her characters, such as in The Making of Americans where the narrator is described through the repetition of narrative phrases such as "As I was saying" and "There will be now a history of her.
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